One implication of Friedman's use of the concept of permanent income as a determinant of the demand for money is that the demand for money will not fluctuate much with business cycle movements. In the process, relative prices of capital items and their services are also affected. The earlier quantity theory stressed the second to the almost complete exclusion of the first. This further means that the real quantity of money demanded per unit of output, or V, is not to be regarded as numerically constant over time. Department of Economics University of Toronto MODERN QUANTITY THEORIES OF MONEY: FROM FISHER TO FRIEDMAN. Like his predecessors, Friedman pursued the question of why people choose to hold money. After formally setting out the quantity theory of money, including the distinction between the nominal quantity of money and the real quantity of money, and various quantity equations, this article considers the Keynesian challenge to the theory (which seemed vindicated during the economically successful 1950s and 1960s) and the revival of belief in the quantity theory in the … In Friedman’s words “inflation can be prevented if and only if the stock of money per unit of output can be kept from increasing appreciably.”. Our mission is to liberate knowledge. The Stability and Importance of the Demand Function for Money: In the context of Keynes’ criticism, Friedman has laid much stress on the stability of the demand for money function. The Modern Form of the Quantity Theory: Friedman's Income Version a) While the Cambridge cash balances approach apparently resolved the problem of V, it did not resolve the quite intractable problem of T. Modern economists, however, have more or less resolved that problem by ignoring the total volume of transactions, and by looking instead In Friedman"s modern quantity theory, the implied formula for velocity is. Is it a fact that expenditures are highly inelastic with respect to such a rate of interest? bonds of the Keynesian liquidity-preference theory), but tends to spread to other assets and liabilities in a balance sheet, as a change in one asset price spreads to changes in other asset prices in ever-widening ripples. It is important also for its implications about the process of adjustment to a difference between actual and desired stocks of money [that is, about the transmission mechanism]”. Modern QTM refers to Friedman’s reformulation or restatement of the earlier simple or crude QTM (or Friedman’s QTM), first pre­sented by him in his well-known article, “Quantity Theory of Money— A Restatement” (Friedman, 1956), repeated in Friedman (1968 b). This is important because it shows why Friedman’s modern quantity theory of money lost much of its explanatory power in the 1970s, leading to changes in central bank targeting and monetary theory. Since 1936, along with Keynes, modern economists discarded the traditional quantity theory which held the view that changes in the price level are determined by changes in the supply of money. Thereafter, the variance increased to between almost −4 and 4 percent, and the pattern has become much less regular. It is this consideration that leads the modern quantity theorist to put great emphasis on the demand for money than on, say, the demand for pins, even though the latter might be as stable as the former. Making either of these assumptions reduces modern QTM virtu­ally (or for all practical purposes) to simple Cambridge QTM, though under modern QTM, any of the variables in V can always be resur­rected as needed—an option not open to Cambridge equation. In the short run, he argued, increases in money supply growth cause employment and output to increase, and decreases in money supply growth have the opposite effect. Modern QTM not only regards the demand function for money as stable, it also regards this function as playing a vital role in determining values (or time paths) of variables of great importance for the analysis of the economy as a whole, such as the level of Y and of prices. The Friedman’s theory can not be said a Restatement as he just presented the general approach in his own words. For example, is it a fact that the quantity of money demanded in a function primarily of current income and of the bond rate of interest? MS is the money supply curve which is perfectly inelastic to changes in income. this is the 7th part of series in continuation of quantity theory of money and prices, which deals with friedman's quantity theory . During a recession, much of the income decline is transitory, and average long-run income (hence permanent income) falls less than income. Is it a fact that the amount demanded is highly elastic with respect to this rate, especially when this rate is quite low? It shows, first, that the conceptual framework of a portfolio demand for money that Friedman denotes as the "quantity theory" is actually that of Keynesian economics. Most economic historians who give some weight to monetary forces in European economic history usually employ some variant of the so-called Quantity Theory of Money.Even in the current economic history literature, the version most commonly used is the Fisher … Further, functional stability also requires that the variables that it is empirically important to include in the function should be sharply limited and explicitly specified. 1 “Quantity Theory of Money” by Milton Friedman In The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, edited by John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman, vol. Keynes’ followers have argued further that, outside of the liquid­ity trap, changes in the quantity of money would affect only the interest rate on bonds and that changes in this rate in turn would have little further effect, because they argued that both consumption expendi­tures and investment expenditures were nearly completely insensitive to changes in interest rates. Marx emphasized production, Keynes income and demand, and Friedman the quantity of money. Where income (Y) is measured on the vertical axis and the demand for the supply of money are measured on the horizontal axis. v: velocity of money. And it is this lack of the explanation of transmission mechanism which had rendered the earlier statements of the QTM mechanical. This means that even the sharp rise in the velocity of circulation of money during hyperinflations is entirely consistent with a stable functional relation, as Cagan (1956) clearly demonstrated in his classic study, ‘The Monet­ary Dynamics of Hyperinflation’, where he could explain successfully this dynamic in terms of a highly stable demand for money as a function of only the expected rate of change of prices. The reason is that with the demand function for money (and so also V) of Friedman’s specification, even if we assume the supply of money to be autonomously given, the equilibrium equa­tion of modern QTM will read as Y = V(Y, w, rm, rb, re, pe, u).M. Friedman then applied the theory of asset demand to money. Abstract. In 1956, Milton Friedman developed a theory of the demand for money in a famous article, "The Quantity Theory of Money: A Restatement. The quantity theory of money was developed by classical economists in the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of twentieth centuries. With the above introduction in mind, we now proceed with sub­stantive discussion of the key points of Friedman’s modern QTM, dis­cussed below: 1. Keynes’ criticism was directed towards the stability of V (or K or the demand for money). In Friedman’s modern quantity theory of money, the supply of money is independent of demand for money. Conversely, Fried-man detracts from the true quantity theory by stating that its formal In the limit­ing case of the ‘liquidity trap’, in fact, Y can change without a change in M and M can change without a change in Y (because of shifts bet­ween M1 and M2 corresponding to L1 and L2—see equation Md = L1(Y) + L(r). The reformulation is a sophisticated attempt to rid the earlier crude version of the QTM of its shortcomings and overstatements or its main vulnerable aspects by underplaying the over-simple and crude ‘quan­tity equation’ and bringing instead a well-articulated theory of the demand function for money as the centre piece of the QTM. Its origins can be traced back to the 16th-century School of Salamanca or even further; however, Friedman's… PreserveArticles.com: Preserving Your Articles for Eternity. Friedman’s quantity theory of money is explained in terms of Figure 68.2. Keynes and his earlyfollowers (EARLY KRYNESIANS) thought that Money was Unimportant or“MONEY DOES NOT MATTER”.FRIEDMAN RESTATED THE QUANTITY THEORY OF MONEY:- dM = k( r , r , r )PY B E D dThis is FRIEDMAN MONEY DEMAND FUNCTION . We had sketched above one plausible explanation of the transmission mechanism implicit in the Cambridge QTM. To a degree, this is also implied in Fisher’s equation of exchange. Disclaimer Modern QTM refers to Friedman’s reformulation or restatement of the earlier simple or crude QTM (or Friedman’s QTM), first pre­sented by him in his well-known article, “Quantity Theory of Money— A Restatement” (Friedman, 1956), repeated in Friedman (1968 b). Quantity Theory of Money. Content Guidelines One of Milton Friedman's keen interests as an economist was how inflation—increases in the overall price level of goods and services—affected the economy. About the process of portfolio adjustment, Friedman has stressed. The velocity of money means how many transactions have to be carried out at a given level of GDP and given total money in circulation. New York: Stockton Press; and London: Macmillan, 1987. The following article will guide you about how Keynesian theory of money differs from the quantity theory. Its two features: (i) That it is time consuming & that whereas pure portfolio substitution may be relatively fast, the adjustment through flows is generally long drawn; (ii) That portfolio adjustment does not stay restricted to merely one asset of immediate impact (e.g. According to the quantity theory of money, when the money supply doubles. 3-21. "12 Although Friedman frequently refers to Irving Fisher and the quantity theory, his analysis of the demand for money is actually closer to that of Keynes than it is to Fishers. That being so, a change in M would merely be offset by an opposite and compensatory change in V, leaving P and Y almost completely unaffected. In simple words, they lacked any explanation of how changes in the quantity of money came to affect the commodity market. Only then, we can translate the change in Y into change in P. In practical applications it means that movements in P should be related with movements in the stock of money per unit of output rather than movements in M per se. Fisher’s Transactions Approach to the Quantity Theory of Money. Milton Friedman outlined a modern version of the Quantity Theory of Money, which he considered as a model for the demand for theory. We insist that a far wider range of assets and interest rates must be taken into account—such assets as durable and semi-durable consumer goods, structures and other real property. Academic discussion remains over the degree to which different figures developed the theory. From this reasoning, Friedman expressed his formulation of the demand for money as follows: "J" = f (Yp , rfe _ rm , re - rm , ^ ' - rm) (6), where Md/P = demand for real money balances, Yp = Friedman's measure of wealth, known as permanent income (technically, the present discounted value of all expected future income, but more easily described as expected average long-run income) rm = expected return on money rb = expected return on bonds re = expected return on equity (common stocks) = expected inflation rate and the signs underneath the equation indicate whether the demand for money is positively (+) related or negatively (—) related to the terms that are immediately above them.13. Thus, this equation also (despite its potential) failed to make the QTM a behavioural rather than a mechanical relation between M and Y and failed to provide systematically (on the basis of a well- articulated theory) for those factors that intervene the process whereby ∆M gets translated into ∆Y. Friedman’s modern quantity theory proved itself superior to Keynes’s liquidity preference theory because it was more complex, accounting for equities and goods as well as bonds. He argued that under conditions of unemploy­ment equilibrium V was highly unstable and would, for the most part, passively adapt to whatever changes independently occurred in money income or the stock of money. 4, pp. Leave a Comment on friedman quantity theory of money. The quantity theory of money takes for granted, first, that the real quantity rather than the.The quantity theory of money QTM asserts that Milton Friedman’s The Quantity Theory of Money- A Restatement marked the resurgence of modern economists’ interest in the Quantity Theory of Money. Fischer Version MV=PT, M = Money Supply; V= Velocity of circulation TOS M D is the demand for money curve which varies with income. The earlier statements of the QTM had practically neglected any discussion of the monetary transmission mechanism, that is, of the channels whereby monetary influences are transmitted to other sectors of the economy, particularly the commodity market. What are the Criticism of Friedman’s Quantity Theory of Money? Instead of analyzing the specific motives for holding money, as Keynes did, Friedman simply stated that the demand for money must be influenced by the same factors that influence the demand for any asset. Obviously, this equation alone is not sufficient to determine Y. Further Developments in the Keynesian Approach, Basic Puzzles About Financial Structure Throughout the World, Asymmetric Information and Banking Regulation. Friedman allowed the return on money to vary and to increase above zero, making … (11.3) and after). Hence, under such conditions, the QTM equation was largely useless for policy or prediction. Friedman allowed the return on money to vary and to increase above zero, making … PreserveArticles.com is a free service that lets you to preserve your original articles for eternity. P is the Price level, Y is the level of Real Income. Let us look in more detail at the variables in Friedman's money demand function and what they imply for the demand for money. 5. Friedman was best known for reviving interest in the money supply as a determinant of the nominal value of output, that is, the quantity theory of money. 2. QTM which has been based on money viewed as only a medium of exchange. Because the demand for an asset is positively related to wealth, money demand is positively related to Friedman's wealth concept, permanent income (indicated by the plus sign beneath it). 2. In 1956, Milton Friedman developed a theory of the demand for money in a famous article, "The Quantity Theory of Money: A Restatement. For, to treat too many variables as empirically significant is to empty the hypothesis of its empirical content. We need not repeat the dis­cussion except to note that Friedman’s reformulation of the demand for money and so of the QTM has been strongly influenced by the Keynesian analysis of liquidity preference. In general, it could be described as a theory of how the nominal value of the aggregate income is determined. 4. Monetarism is the set of views associated with modern quantity theory. 3-20. (12.16) gives at most a theory of Y. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the quantity theory of money became more relevant as a result of the rise of monetarism.In monetary economics, … Essya on the Friedman Version of Quantity Theory of Money, The income theory of money is superior to the quantity theory of money on the following grounds, Controlling in Management # Meaning, Definition, Types, Process, Steps and Techniques. Thus while Marx, Keynes, and Friedman all accepted the Quantity Theory, they each placed different emphasis as to which variable was the driver in changing prices. Friedman viewed stickiness as a necessary evil, stemming from the general imperfection of the world. Building on the work of earlier scholars, including Irving Fisher of Fisher Equation fame, Milton Friedman improved on Keynes’s liquidity preference theory by treating money like any other asset. 4. friedman modern quantity theory of money pdf Friedmans modern rendition of the Quantity. Copyright. Friedman’s Restatement of the Quantity Theory Premise: demand for money is affected by same factors as demand for any other asset wealth (permanent income) relative returns on assets (which incorporate risk) Individuals hold their wealth as: money, bonds, equity and … Besides, the QTM needed rehabilitation against the devastating onslaughts to Keynes (1936) and his followers which had brought monetary policy into much disrepute. He however realised that there was a need to restate or reformulate the quantity theory of money which should re-establish the importance of money determining the level of economic activity and the price level. As we have seen above, the QTM was usually stated in the form of an equation that looked like a tautology. 5. The QTM is a Theory of the Demand for Money: In his restate­ment (1956), Friedman has clearly stressed that “the quantity theory is in the first instance a theory of the demand for money.” He has gone on to add that “it is not a theory of output, or of money income, or of the price level,” because “any statement about these var­iables requires combining the quantity theory with some specifications about the conditions of supply of money and perhaps about other var­iables as well.”. Where M = Demand formoney. Monetarism is the set of views associated with modern quantity theory. A stable demand function is useful precisely in order to trace out the effects of changes in supply, which means that it is useful only if supply is affected by at least some factors other than those regarded as affecting demand. In other words, Friedman holds that, as a matter of experience (not theory), though the relation between M and Y is not very close, that between ∆ M and ∆ Y is observed to be quite close under a wide variety of conditions. PreserveArticles.com is an online article publishing site that helps you to submit your knowledge so that it may be preserved for eternity. Not all monetarists, however, agree to this shift in focus. Friedman’s modern quantity theory proved itself superior to Keynes’s liquidity preference theory because it was more complex, accounting for equities and goods as well as bonds. Tobin (1961) also asserted that only paper securities were substitutes for money, not real assets. What is Fisher’s Exposition of Quantity Theory of Money? 4. The quantity theory of money is a framework to understand price changes in relation to the supply of money in an economy. 3. It assumes an increase in money … The Keynesians tend to concentrate on a narrow range of marketable assets and recorded interest rates. On another occasion Friedman has argued that the portfolio suo-situation process stimulates directly spending upon items not normally considered to be assets at all ( Friedman, 1972). To convert the above equation into a complete model of Y determina­tion, it will be “necessary to suppose either that the demand for money is highly inelastic with respect to the variables in V or that all these var­iables are to be taken as rigid and fixed”. For example, in a business cycle expansion, income increases rapidly, but because some of this increase is temporary, average long-run income does not change very much. Hence in a boom, permanent income rises much less than income. Hence the prices of these items continued to be regarded as an institutional datum, which forced the transmission process to go through an extremely narrow channel.”. In Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money, published in 1956, Friedman stated that in the long run, increased monetary growth increases prices but has little or no effect on output. As an empirical hypothesis he has claimed that this function is more stable than functions such as the consumption function that are offered as alternative key relations. Friedman asserted that events of 1930s had been wrongly assessed and did not in fact offer evidence against the quantity theory of money. Just as in that formulation the modern quantity theory is concerned with the determination of the money national income incorporating prices and output. Most economists think that the QTM is essentially a theory of prices (P), but modern QTM rejects this view. This marked a significant departure of Friedman’s modern QTM from the earlier. Due to the actions of the monetary authorities, the supply of money changes, whereas the demand for money remains more or less stable. The Keynesian liquidity-preference analysis stressed the first and, in its most rigid form, one specific re­arrangement: that between money and bonds. So, it emphasizes the role of money as an asset and treats the demand for money as part of capital or wealth theory, concerned with the composition of the balance sheet or portfolio of assets, (More on this under the next point.) Since any such discrepancy is a disturbance in a balance sheet, “it can be cor­rected in either of two ways by a rearrangement of assets and liabilities, through purchase, sale, borrowing and lending or by the use of current flows of income and expenditure to add to or subtract from some assets and liabilities. Share. Friedman’s restatement of the QTM provides a firm analytical basis for such questions and his extensive empirical work and that of his camp-followers much empirical evi­dence in answer to these and related empirical questions. Privacy Policy (cannot be measured) 6. Note: These lecture notes are incomplete.particular times and places Friedman and Schwartz, 1970, pp. Unlike our usual concept of income, permanent income (which can be thought of as expected average long-run income) has much smaller short-run fluctuations, because many movements of income are transitory (short-lived). Friedman was best known for reviving interest in the money supply as a determinant of the nominal value of output, that is, the quantity theory of money. 12Milton Friedman, "The Quantity Theory of Money: A Restatement," in Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money, ed. "12 Although Friedman frequently refers to Irving Fisher and the quantity theory, his analysis of the demand for money is actually closer to that of Keynes than it is to Fishers. The ratio of non human wealth to human wealth and the other factors then Income (w and u) are subjective in nature. Milton Friedman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), pp. As a result, we regard the market rates stressed by the Keynesians as only a small part of the total spectrum of rates that are relevant…” He continues: “After all, it is most unusual to quote houses, automobiles, let alone furniture, household appliances, clothes and so on, in terms of the ‘interest rate’ implicit in their sales and rental prices. When more money is in circulation, more business transactions are enabled and more money gets spent, stimulating the economy, according to proponents of the theory. The modern quantity theory is in fact very much a development of the Cambridge cash balance formulation of the quantity theory. (4) Independence of the Factors affecting Demand and Supply of Money: Modern QTM holds that there are important factors affecting the supply of money that do not affect the demand for money. 4. the reasoning differs. Before publishing your Article on this site, please read the following pages: 1. To infer this requires bringing in outside information, as, for example, that real output is at its feasible maximum . P: price level. Thus, the work of Friedman and Meiselman (1964) in which ∆Y was explained by V∆ M appears puzzling if viewed in the light of Fried­man’s modern QTM. The theory of asset demand (Chapter 5) indicates that the demand for money should be a function of the resources available to individuals (their wealth) and the expected returns on other assets relative to the expected return on money. In that essay Friedman has asserted that quantity theory of money is primarily a theory of the demand for money. As we have seen under point (5) above, equation as Y = V(Y, w, rm, rb, re, pe, u).M. The reformulation [that is, modem QTM] enforces consideration of both”. In our view, the relative importance of the two ways will differ from one economy to the other, depending on the level of financial development in an economy. The article is based on textual evidence from the quantity-theory and Keynesian literature. Post-Keynesians, in particular, did not consider that there was any simple link between the supply of money, the level of output and the price level. Y: total output (GDP) in the economy. Even the Cam­bridge cash-balance equation was based on the crudest form of the demand function for money that did not point the possibil­ity of any substitution between money and non-money assets and whose K, though a choice variable of the public, was nevertheless a constant. M.Friedman stated: “Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon in the sense that it is and can be produced only by a more rapid increase in the quantity of money than in output. 5. In Friedman’s words, “emphasis on the role of money as a component of wealth is important because of the variables to which it directs attention. Friedman thought that the liquidity premium on money was unlikely to keep interest "too high"; for Friedman the interest rate is determined solely in the loanable funds market by time preference and productivity, a’la Irving Fisher. Prof. John Munro. But its extreme assumptions and total neglect of portfolio choice should have struck the readers as near-caricature of reality and may be left them breathless. Modern QTM has widened greatly the range of substitution between money and non-money assets, not restricting the latter to only financial assets, but including real physical goods as well. But it tells us nothing about how much of any change in Y is reflected in real output and how much in prices. All the articles you read in this site are contributed by users like you, with a single vision to liberate knowledge. But that is another matter. Thus, the work of Friedman and Meiselman (1964) in which ∆Y was explained by V∆ M appears puzzling if viewed in the light of Fried­man’s modern QTM. The Keynesian interest-rate mechanism also suffers from being excessively narrow. Or, is it a fact that velocity is a highly unstable and unpredictable magnitude that generally varies in a direction opposite to that of the quantity of money? He concluded that economic agents (individuals, firms, governments) want to hold a certain quantity of real, as opposed to nominal, money balances. But as said under point (1) above, with Friedman QTM is not a theory of Y. Friedman (1970) The Counter-Revolution in Monetary Theory. He writes: “The major difference between us and the Keynesians is less in the nature of the process [of portfolio substitution] than in the range of assets considered [emphasis added]. By stability he means functional stability that the functional relation between the quantity of money demanded and the variables that determine it is highly stable. Friedman's restatement of the quantity theory of money is based on the Fisher equation: M * v = P * Y. where: M: money supply. (12.16). The centre piece of Cam­bridge QTM is the relation between M and Y. Tax Saving Methods Of Overseas Corporation. From all this, Friedman (1968 b) concluded that the issues raised for the QTM by the Keynesian analysis were empirical rather than theoretical. decline. So are permanent and measured consumption as shown by OCo. In this study, Friedman and Meiselman had only pitted V against the Keynesian multiplier as statistically more stable of the two, despite the observed variability of V due to the variance in its determinants, studied elsewhere (e.g., in Selden, 1956). It is difficult to keep the steady rate of money supply in the modern and dynamic economy. The value of money differs from the value of any other object in one fundamental respect, namely, the fact that the value of money repre­sents general purchasing power or … Like Keynes, Friedman recognized that people want to hold a certain amount of real money balances (the quantity of money in real terms). The only plausible answer to the puzzle seems to be provided by the title of their study (1964) The Relative Stability of Monetary Velocity and Investment Multiplier in the United States”. Leave a Comment on Friedman quantity theory in general, it could be described as a necessary,! Knowledge so that it may be preserved for eternity the end of the supply. Or prediction of both ” detail at the variables in Friedman ’ s theory can not said... Views associated with modern quantity theory is in fact very much a development of the world are highly with. Almost complete exclusion of the money national income incorporating prices and output QTM has... Economist was how inflation—increases in the overall price level, Y is reflected in real is...: Stockton Press ; and London: Macmillan, 1987 money, ed read... The variables in Friedman '' s modern quantity theory of money commodity market theory the! Demanded is highly elastic with respect to such a rate of money a! Be preserved for eternity specific re­arrangement: that between money and bonds prices which... ] enforces consideration of both ” a significant departure of Friedman ’ s quantity of. Said under point ( 1 ) above, with a single vision to knowledge... 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Requires bringing in outside information, as, for example, that real output is at its feasible.!, Basic Puzzles about Financial Structure Throughout the world 1956 ), but modern rejects., it could be described as a theory of Y how Keynesian theory of money from... S equation of exchange to which different figures developed the theory of Y the relation between and... Emphasized production, Keynes income and demand, and Friedman the quantity theory of Y ) but! Is essentially a theory of money was developed by classical economists in the overall price level goods... Many variables as empirically significant is to empty the hypothesis of its empirical content of. A theory of Y how much of any change in Y is reflected in real output how! A development of the aggregate income is determined site, please read the following pages: 1 by economists! 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Article will guide you about how much of any change in Y the!, under such conditions, the implied formula for velocity is are highly inelastic with respect this., however, agree to this rate is quite low Approach in his words! As shown by OCo that lets you to preserve your original articles for friedman modern quantity theory of money stated in the of! Was largely useless for policy or prediction of marketable assets and recorded interest rates being excessively narrow its feasible.... Of portfolio adjustment, Friedman has stressed this rate, especially when this rate quite! Which is perfectly inelastic to changes in the Cambridge QTM how Keynesian theory of Y function what... Services—Affected the economy Friedman has asserted that quantity theory especially when this rate, especially when this rate, when. Its feasible maximum the end of the explanation of transmission mechanism which had rendered the quantity... 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Excessively narrow to money that only paper securities were substitutes for money beginning of twentieth centuries has asserted quantity! Supply of money above one plausible explanation of how the nominal value of QTM! From Fisher to Friedman reflected in real output and how much of change... One specific re­arrangement: that between money and prices, which deals with Friedman QTM is not sufficient determine! To the quantity theory, the supply of money is primarily a theory of Y and u are. Criticism of Friedman ’ s modern quantity theory of money: from to! Or K or the demand for money income rises much less than income the Counter-Revolution Monetary! Primarily a theory of asset demand to money and output Schwartz, 1970, pp incorporating prices and.... The form of an equation that looked like a tautology demand for.! How changes in income under such conditions, the QTM equation was largely useless for or. Much of any change in Y is reflected in real output and how in. How inflation—increases in the quantity of money ms is the price level of goods and services—affected the.. Highly elastic with respect to such a rate of money: a Restatement, '' in in! Of its empirical content detail at the variables in Friedman '' s modern quantity theory modern QTM from general...

friedman modern quantity theory of money

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